Used Solar Panels

Used solar panels can be a great bargain for property owners who are interested in adding a low cost means of generating green electricity for their home.

Although used solar cells can be a wise choice, they also come with many disadvantages. These disadvantages mainly relate to the uncertainty of how long the solar cells will last (due to their age).

Estimating the lifetime of a solar cell can be a complicated task. This is mainly down to the fact that some of the earlier solar products are still in use today. Some cells outlive their stated lifetime range (which is usually around 30 years), and as new solar technologies are brought to the marketplace, who knows how long these products will last.

Older cells generally take up more space per wattage than modern day solar cells. This can be an issue for home owners who want low cost second hand solar panels, but don't have a great deal of space to accommodate their desired capacity.

If you purchase used panels, then you also run the risk of purchasing damaged panels. Try to avoid second hand solar panels which are; cracked, scratched, appear to have condensation under the surface, or have brittle/loose connections. Although these problems can be fixed, a good quality used solar cell should give you less of a headache.

There is no doubt that used solar panels have the potential to save a significant amount of money for the financing of a renewable energy project, however, the above disadvantages of used cells should be taken into account.

Depending on your location, a solar electricity installation may not be economically viable due to the climate and surroundings. Solar cells are generally less efficient in hot climate countries (as heat degrades the performance of solar cells), polluted areas (such as cities), and in areas where there is a low average of daylight hours.

 

DIY Solar panels

 

All iPod

iPod classic (120 GB)

The iPod classic (120 GB) is a hard drive-based iPod featuring a large, widescreen color display, a Click Wheel, and the capability of displaying photos and videos. Like other models, it uses USB for syncing. The iPod classic is available in silver and black, and has an anodized aluminum and polished stainless steel enclosure.

iPod touch (2nd generation)

iPod touch (2nd generation) features a 3.5-inch (diagonal) widescreen multi-touch display and 8 GB, 16 GB, or 32 GB flash drive. You can browse the web with Safari and watch YouTube videos with Wi-Fi. You can also search, preview, and buy songs from the iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store on iPod touch.

The iPod touch (2nd generation) can be distinguished from previous iPod touch models by it's contoured design and oval shaped antennae cover in the back upper left corner.

iPod touch

iPod touch features a 3.5-inch (diagonal) widescreen multi-touch display and 8 GB, 16 GB, or 32 GB flash drive. You can browse the web with Safari and watch YouTube videos on the first-ever Wi-Fi iPod. You can also search, preview, and buy songs from the iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store on iPod touch.

iPod classic

The iPod classic is a hard drive-based iPod (80 GB or 160 GB) featuring a large, widescreen color display, a Click Wheel, and the capability of displaying photos and videos. Like other models, it uses USB for syncing. The iPod classic is available in silver and black, and has an anodized aluminum and polished stainless steel enclosure.

You can distinguish the iPod classic from the iPod (5th generation) by the last three digits of the serial number. The iPod classic serial number's last three digits will be one of the following: Y5N, YMU, YMV, and YMX.

iPod nano (4th generation)

The iPod nano (4th generation) is available in 8 GB or 16 GB capacity and comes in 9 colors.

The iPod nano (4th generation) is distinguished from previous iPod nano models by:

• It's taller screen
• It's curved surface
• It's oval shape when seen from the top or bottom
• The inclusion of an accelerometer that is used by the Shake feature.

iPod nano (3rd generation)

The iPod nano (3rd generation) is available in 4 GB or 8 GB capacity, and comes in 5 colors.

iPod nano (3rd generation) is distinguished from previous iPod nano models by:

• Its wider screen
• Hold switch location on the bottom
• Its ability to play video

You can also distinguish the iPod nano (3rd generation) by the last three digits of the serial number. The iPod nano (3rd generation) serial number's last three digits will be one of the following: YOP, YOR, YXR, YXT, YXV, YXX.

iPod (5th generation late 2006) (also known as iPod with video or Fifth Generation iPod)

You can distinguish the iPod (5th generation late 2006) from the original iPod (5th generation) by the last three digits of the serial number. The iPod (5th generation late 2006) serial number's last three digits will be one of the following: V9K, V9P, V9M, V9R, V9L, V9N, V9Q, V9S, WU9, WUA, WUB, WUC, and X3N. The Fifth Generation U2 Special Edition iPod (30 GB Late 2006) serial number's last three digits are W9G.

iPod (5th generation) (also known as iPod with video or Fifth Generation iPod)

The iPod (5th generation) is a a hard drive-based iPod featuring a large, widescreen color display, a Click Wheel, and the capability of displaying photos and videos. Like iPod nano, it uses USB for syncing and comes in white and black.

iPod nano (2nd generation)

iPod nano (2nd generation) is distinguished from other models by:

• Its smaller size.
• Its colors.
• The dock connector and headphones port are both located on the bottom of the unit.

The iPod nano (PRODUCT) RED Special Edition is an iPod nano (2nd generation) available in red and with a 4 GB or 8 GB drive capacity. With each iPod nano (PRODUCT) RED purchased, $10 from the sale goes directly to the Global Fund to fight AIDS in Africa.

iPod nano

iPod nano is smaller than iPod mini and has a color screen and a Click Wheel but has flash memory instead of a hard drive. Song and photo syncing only occurs over USB 2 (not FireWire). iPod nano comes in white and black. The capacity of the iPod nano is engraved on the back of the case (1 GB, 2 GB, or 4 GB).

The dock connector (1) and headphone jack (2) are both on the bottom of the iPod nano.

iPod shuffle (2nd generation) iPod shuffle (2nd generation) is smaller than the original iPod shuffle and has no USB connector.

You can distinguish the iPod shuffle (2nd generation Early 2008) 2 GB from previous models by the last three characters of the serial number. The iPod shuffle (2nd generation Early 2008) 2 GB serial number’s last three characters will be one of the following: 1ZH, 1ZK, 1ZM, 1ZP, 1ZR.

iPod shuffle iPod shuffle is smaller than iPod mini and has no display. There are LED lights on the front and back. The capacity of the drive is engraved on the front USB connector.

iPod mini is distinguished from other models by:

• Its smaller size.
• Its colors.
• The Hold switch, which is on the top-left side.
• The Click Wheel's button labels, which are on the wheel itself.

apple.com iPod

SEO strategy and analysis

1. Website Review & Competition Analysis

We analyze the competing websites and your website with the report showing your weaknesses compared to the competing sites.  The report advises the method to improve your website in order to compete for the search keyword required.  We also analyze the Log File of your website to fathom out the traffic of visitors before implementing Global Search Engine Optimization with us.  The statistics record will be used to compare with Project statistics after applying our SEO techniques.

2. Keyword Identification

We work in your groove to analyze and research closely for the best effective Keywords concerning your business and service.  We generate a report and statistics for the targeted Keywords we aim for from 3 entrusted sources, e.g. WordTracker, Yahoo! Keyword Selector Tool and Google AdWords Keyword Tool.
 
SEO implementation

1. On-page Optimization

We optimize your real existing webpages without applying Doorway Pages, Black-hat SEO, Spamdexing, Link Farming or any Keyword stuffing.  Using black magic SEO can cause you negatively as Search Engines may investigate your websites and will surely deindex your websites from the list.  On the contrary, we implement white-way On-page Optimization by applying Title Tag, Meta Tags, Body Text and other composing elements by which lawfully comply to the search listing algorithms of Google, Yahoo and MSN.

2. Manual Submission

Our SEO team registers your website manually with Google.com, Yahoo.com and MSN.com (the period depending on each Search Engine would register your website into its database.)

3. Link Building (Implement at the time of analysis)

The quantity and quality of the external links into your websites plays the most key role in uplifting your ranks in Google, Yahoo and MSN.  Ingroove Team will submit the One-way links from the affiliates of our company and accredited Web directories, such as Open Directory Project (ODP) and other 200 web directories.  We  submit your website until it reaches sufficient external links to be listed in Google’s Rank #1 - #10.

 Maintenance after Analysis and Implementation

1. Monitoring
Ingroove SEO Team will monitor and keep an eye on Ranking Algorithm (The formulated method of ranking) from Google, Yahoo and MSN continuously.  Should the Algorithm change, we will learn the changed formulas and adapt the update of the Optimization strategy into your website immediately.  This is to ensure your website remain on Top 10 all the time.

2. Tracking
Ingroove SEO Team installs Web Analytics software, e.g. Google Analysitcs snd Stat Counter to measure your website results from Global Search Engine Optimization as to which keywords and search engines that are successful.

3. Comprehensive Reporting
Ingroove SEO Team will deliver the ranking report of your website in Google, Yahoo and MSN with the report the incresing links by month.  The report is generated on a monthly basis.

SEO

LCD TV vs. Plasma

This is the #1 question for me at any dinner party: Which is better, LCD TV or Plasma? This is a much debated topic and a fun one. When choosing between plasma and LCD TVs, you're actually selecting between two competing technologies, both of which achieve similar features (i.e., ,bright crystal-clear images, super color-filled pictures) and come in similar packages (i.e., 3.5 inch depth flat screen casing). To complicate the decision-making process further, price and size are two previous considerations that are rapidly becoming non-issues as LCD TVs are now being made in larger sizes and at competing prices with plasma.

Despite their similarities, the two technologies are very different in the way they deliver the image to the viewer.

Plasma technology consists hundreds of thousands of individual pixel cells, which allow electric pulses (stemming from electrodes) to excite rare natural gases-usually xenon and neon-causing them to glow and produce light. This light illuminates the proper balance of red, green, or blue phosphors contained in each cell to display the proper color sequence from the light. Each pixel cell is essentially an individual microscopic florescent light bulb, receiving instruction from software contained on the rear electrostatic silicon board. Look very closely at a plasma TV and you can actually see the individual pixel cell coloration of red, green, and blue bars. You can also see the black ribs which separate each.

Whether spread across a flat-panel screen or placed in the heart of a projector, all LCD displays come from the same technological background. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) supplies voltage to liquid-crystal-filled cells sandwiched between two sheets of glass. When hit with an electrical charge, the crystals untwist to an exact degree to filter white light generated by a lamp behind the screen (for flat-panel TVs) or one projecting through a small LCD chip (for projection TVs). LCD TVs reproduce colors through a process of subtraction: They block out particular color wavelengths from the spectrum of white light until they're left with just the right color. And, it's the intensity of light permitted to pass through this liquid-crystal matrix that enables LCD televisions to display images chock-full of colors-or gradations of them.

PICTURE CONSIDERATIONS

CONTRAST / BLACK LEVELS

Plasma technology has certainly achieved quite high contrast ratios, a measure of the blackest black compared to the whitest white. Many plasma display manufacturers boast a contrast ratio of 3000:1 these days though our tests have not proven these numbers out. Panasonic has long been the leader in plasma black levels and we measure contrast of a 42" HD Panasonic plasma at about ANSI 1450:1 - still impressive. Plasma displays achieve such impressive black levels by using internal algorithms to block the power to particular pixels in order to render a pixel "dark" or black. While this can limit a plasma television's gray scaling, it does produce exceptionally black blacks - depending on the manufactured plasma display element (i.e. glass). A plasma TV uses the most power when it is producing full white. As a result, some 2nd tier manufactured brands of plasma TVs have an audible buzz or whining sound when displaying white or very light images.

LCD (liquid crystal diode) displays, by contrast, utilize electric charges to twist and untwist liquid crystals, which causes them to block light and, hence, emit blacks. The higher the voltage passing through the liquid crystals in a given pixel, the more fully those crystals untwist and effectively block light - all of which makes these pixels darker. As opposed to plasma, LCD TVs use the most power when displaying a very dark or black image. This is a difficult process, and despite recent improvements in LCD black levels, only the best LCD televisions (like those produced by Sharp and Sony) have managed to topple the 1000:1 contrast ratio barrier. Recent improvements have brought LCD displays up to the level of plasma. The one continual drawback here for LCD is off axis viewing, when black levels consistently drop.

ADVANTAGE: Closer than a year ago, but still Plasma. LCD TV manufacturers have made great improvements in black levels and in many cases have managed to match the contrast ratio of plasma displays. However, Plasma displays still maintain a clear advantage in this category due to fading blacks when viewing LCDs from off axis. For scenes with a lot of dark and light images shown simultaneously - as with content originating from DVDs, video games, and NTSC TV signals - plasmas still consistently outperform LCD TVs.

COLOR ACCURACY

In plasma displays, each pixel contains red, green, and blue elements, which work in conjunction to create 16.77 million colors. Insofar as each pixel contains all the elements needed to produce every color in the spectrum, color information was more accurately reproduced with plasma technology than it was with other display technologies. The chromaticity coordinates were more accurate on most plasma displays. Though the color saturation resulting from the pixel design of plasma displays is remarkable, LCD technology has nearly caught plasma in gray scaling color accuracy. Plasma continues to exhibit more richness in color information and more natural coloration. Today, SMPTE color coordinates in top plasma displays still normally outperform those in LCDs, which tend toward oversaturation.

LCD TVs reproduce colors by manipulating light waves and subtracting colors from white light. This is an inherently difficult template for maintaining color accuracy and vibrancy - though most LCD displays manage quite well. While color information benefits from the higher-than-average number of pixels per square inch found in LCD televisions (especially when compared to plasmas), LCDs are simply not as impressive as plasmas with similar pixel counts. LCDs however, produce a typically brighter picture. Greens sometimes look over-green and reds can run a bit warm, but in a room with bright outdoor lighting, an LCD TV would be my choice.

ADVANTAGE: Preference to plasma but depends upon room light, manufacturer and model. Plasma color richness and naturalness will prevail in rooms with lower to normal lighting. LCDs will be better in very brightly lit rooms due to their inherent anti glare technology and brightness.

VIEWING ANGLES

Plasma manufacturers have made much of their 160? viewing angles, which is about as good as horizontal and vertical viewing angles get. This owes to the fact that each pixel produces its own light, rather than light being spread across the screen from one central source. Hence, each pixel is more readily visible because its brightness is consistent with every other pixel on the screen. One consistent area of superiority of plasma viewing angles is demonstrated when viewing dark material content, especially DVDs. A Plasma display holds the black levels from off axis, while LCD TVs lose black level intensity more as the angle off axis increases. This usually occurs after around 90 degrees.

LCD TV manufacturers have done much to improve their displays' viewing angles. The substrate material on newer-generation LCD models by Sharp and Sony has helped to expand those units' viewing angles, though they still have some ground to cover before catching plasma. Expect the best LCD HDTVs to have between 120 and 130 degree viewing angles.

ADVANTAGE: Plasma

FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

COMPUTER USE

LCD flat screens display static images from computer or VGA sources extremely well, with full color detail, no flicker, and no screen burn-in. Moreover, the number of pixels per square inch on an LCD display is typically higher than other display technologies, so LCD monitors are especially good at displaying large amounts of data - like you would find on an Excel spreadsheet for example - with exceptional clarity and precision. For the same reasons, LCD TVs will also be a slightly better template for video gaming.

Plasma technology has increased anti burn in tactics as well as computer and static signal handling. There are still issues with each depending very much on the model and manufacturer. For example, most EDTV plasma displays do not handle a computer input well and product a very jaggy image when viewing static images from same. Users may want to consider a commercial version plasma if their application calls for a lot of computer use.

ADVANTAGE: LCD

FAST-MOVING VIDEO PLAYBACK

Plasma gets the nod here because of their excellent performance with fast-moving images and high contrast levels. There are still some 2nd tier manufacturers whose plasma product displays some phosphor lag, a drag time in scenes changing from bright to dark.

While the "response time" of LCD TVs has markedly improved in the last couple of years, they still suffer from a slight "trailer" effect, where the individual pixels are just slightly out of step with the image on the screen. During fast moving sports scenes, the most discerning eyes can detect this slight motion response lag.

ADVANTAGE: Plasma

HIGH ALTITUDE

There is a reason LCD flat panels are the preferred visual display units for use on airplanes: LCD TVs aren't affected by increases or decreases in air pressure. Their performance is consistent regardless of the altitude at which they're utilized.

This is not the case for a plasma. The display element in plasma TVs is actually a glass substrate envelope with rare natural gases compressed therein. So, at high altitudes (6,500 feet and above), an air-pressure differential emerges, which causes plasma displays to emit a buzzing sound due to the lower air pressure. This noise can sound rather like the humming of an old neon sign. NEC has been effective in producing several plasma models that are rated to 9,500 feet.

ADVANTAGE: LCD, at 6,500 feet and higher.

LONGEVITY

LCD television manufacturers claim that their displays last, on average, 50,000 to 65,000 hours. In fact, an LCD TV will last as long as its backlight does - and those bulbs can sometimes be replaced! Since this is nothing more than light passing through a prismatic substrate, there is essentially nothing to wear out in an LCD monitor. However, one nasty little known fact about LCD technology is that as the backlight ages it can change colors slightly (think of florescent office lighting). When this occurs the white balance of the entire LCD TV will be thrown for a loop and the user will need to re-calibrate, or worse, try to replace the backlighting or ditch the unit altogether. Some of the early purchasers of larger LCD screens will be learning this tidbit in a couple of years. One thing that I've found in this industry, it is not easy to find out whether the backlighting on LCDs can be replaced. Manufacturers are either hesitant to discuss the topic, or they just don't know.

Plasma, on the other hand, utilizes slight electric currents to excite a combination of noble gases (i.e., argon, neon, xenon), which glow red, blue, and/or green. This is an essentially active phenomenon, so the phosphoric elements in plasma displays fade over time. Many manufacturers state a new half life of 60,000 hours. While I am skeptical of this spec, I do believe strides have been made to nearly even the playing field with LCD. At half life, the phosphors in a plasma screen will glow half as brightly as they did when the set was new. There is no way to replace these gases; the display simply continues to grow dimmer with use.

ADVANTAGE: Even, depending upon manufacturer quality.

SCREEN BURN IN

LCD technology is not prone to screen "burn-in" or "ghosting" (premature aging of pixel cells) due to the nature of the technologies "twisting crystals."

With plasma, static images will begin to "burn-in," or permanently etch the color being displayed into the glass display element. The time it takes for this to occur depends greatly on the anti burn-in technology of the manufacturer. Recent improvements by plasma manufacturers have certainly extended the time it takes to burn in a plasma pixel cell. In the past I was concerned to place a DVD on pause 15 minutes. Now, many of the enhancements such as better green phosphor material, and motion adaptive anti burn-in technology are greatly reducing the risk of burn in. It's gotten so much better that I don't even worry about it anymore. In a new model plasma from any top tier manufacturer I would put "ghosting" estimates at an hour or more now (Ghosting can be "washed" out by displaying static gray material). Permanent burn-in I would put at more than 10 hours.

ADVANTAGE: LCD, though not as much a concern as it was a year ago.

OTEHR CONSIDERATIONS

PRODUCTION SIZE AND COST

All television measurements are stated in inches and are for diagonal measurement of the screen from corner to corner - not including framing.

Both plasma and LCD TVs are becoming more readily available in larger sizes though plasma still leads the size battle by a great margin. Pioneer and LG produce 61" plasma sizes while Panasonic has a readily available 65" model. Though it is not being imported into the U.S. yet, Samsung has produced a gigantic plasma of 100 inches. Though such mammoth monitors are expensive, they exhibit none of the "kinks" one might expect with such large displays. In other words, even the largest plasma displays are reliable. Large plasma displays will consume power - try 675 watts for a 65 "display compared to around 330 watts for a 42" plasma.

The substrate material for LCD TVs has proved difficult to produce in large sizes without pixel defects owing to faulty transistors. Sharp produces one of the largest available LCD displays at 45 inches, while Samsung has a 46" LCD. Sony and NEC currently produce units measuring 40" diagonally. This will change very soon. These manufacturers will have very large LCD screens here this year if production goes as planned.

ADVANTAGE: Plasma, though the playing field is leveling. Even though production costs and retail prices have come down for both technologies, plasma still has the edge as far as production cost and capacity go.

POWER CONSUMPTION

Because LCDs use florescent backlighting to produce images, they require substantially less power to operate than plasmas do. LCD TVs consume about half the power that plasma displays consume. The reason: Plasmas use a lot of electricity to light each and every pixel you see on a screen - even the dark ones. Though plasma manufacturers have improved voltage consumption requirements a plasma TV will consume around a third more power for the same size display.

ADVANTAGE: LCD

PRICE AND RESOLUTION

LCD HDTV displays will have a higher resolution per same size comparison than plasma. The lowest resolution of a 40 inch LCD will be 1366 X 768 - easily full HD resolution in 1080i or 720p. A 42 inch HD plasma has a resolution of 1024 X 768. While this is not truly an HD resolution, it's close enough so that it's difficult to know the difference. A 50 inch plasma TV will have a resolution of 1366 X 768, while a 45 inch LCD displays 1920 X 1080 (1080P) resolution.

Those extra pixels and the production process of LCD HDTVs cost more money to produce. Expect to pay a third as much more for a similar size LCD TV than a plasma display.

Reviewer: Phil Connor

LCD TV

Rubber

Chemistry and Properties

All rubberlike materials are polymers, which are high molecular weight compounds consisting of long chains of one or more types of molecules, such as monomers. Vulcanization (or curing) produces chemical links between the loosely coiled polymeric chains; elasticity occurs because the chains can be stretched and the crosslinks cause them to spring back when the stress is released. Natural rubber is a polyterpene, i.e., it consists of isoprene molecules linked into loosely twisted chains. The monomer units along the backbone of the carbon chains are in a cis arrangement (see isomer) and it is this spatial configuration that gives rubber its highly elastic character. In gutta-percha, which is another natural polyterpene, the isoprene molecules are bonded in a trans configuration leading to a crystalline solid at room temperature. Unvulcanized rubber is soluble in a number of hydrocarbons, including benzene, toluene, gasoline, and lubricating oils.

Rubber is water repellent and resistant to alkalies and weak acids. Rubber's elasticity, toughness, impermeability, adhesiveness, and electrical resistance make it useful as an adhesive, a coating composition, a fiber, a molding compound, and an electrical insulator. In general, synthetic rubber has the following advantages over natural rubber: better aging and weathering, more resistance to oil, solvents, oxygen, ozone, and certain chemicals, and resilience over a wider temperature range. The advantages of natural rubber are less buildup of heat from flexing and greater resistance to tearing when hot.

Natural Rubber

Natural rubber is obtained from the milky secretion (latex) of various plants, but the only important commercial source of natural rubber (sometimes called Par? rubber) is the tree Hevea brasiliensis. The only other plant under cultivation as a commercial rubber source is guayule (Parthenium argentatum), a shrub native to the arid regions of Mexico and the SW United States. To soften the rubber so that compounding ingredients can be added, the long polymer chains must be partially broken by mastication, mechanical shearing forces applied by passing the rubber between rollers or rotating blades. Thus, for most purposes, the rubber is ground, dissolved in a suitable solvent, and compounded with other ingredients, e.g., fillers and pigments such as carbon black for strength and whiting for stiffening; antioxidants; plasticizers, usually in the form of oils, waxes, or tars; accelerators; and vulcanizing agents. The compounded rubber is sheeted, extruded in special shapes, applied as coating or molded, then vulcanized. Most Par? rubber is exported as crude rubber and prepared for market by rolling slabs of latex coagulated with acid into thin sheets of crepe rubber or into heavier, firmly pressed sheets that are usually ribbed and smoked.

An increasing quantity of latex, treated with alkali to prevent coagulation, is shipped for processing in manufacturing centers. Much of it is used to make foam rubber by beating air into it before pouring it into a vulcanizing mold. Other products are made by dipping a mold into latex (e.g., rubber gloves) or by casting latex. Sponge rubber is prepared by adding to ordinary rubber a powder that forms a gas during vulcanization. Most of the rubber imported into the United States is used in tires and tire products; other items that account for large quantities are belting, hose, tubing, insulators, valves, gaskets, and footwear. Uncoagulated latex, compounded with colloidal emulsions and dispersions, is extruded as thread, coated on other materials, or beaten to a foam and used as sponge rubber. Used and waste rubber may be reclaimed by grinding followed by devulcanization with steam and chemicals, refining, and remanufacture.

Synthetic rubber

The more than one dozen major classes of synthetic rubber are made of raw material derived from petroleum, coal, oil, natural gas, and acetylene. Many of them are copolymers, i.e., polymers consisting of more than one monomer. By changing the composition it is possible to achieve specific properties desired for special applications. The earliest synthetic rubbers were the styrene-butadiene copolymers, Buna S and SBR, whose properties are closest to those of natural rubber. SBR is the most commonly used elastomer because of its low cost and good properties; it is used mainly for tires. Other general purpose elastomers are cis-polybutadiene and cis-polyisoprene, whose properties are also close to that of natural rubber.

Among the specialty elastomers are copolymers of acrylonitrile and butadiene that were originally called Buna N and are now known as nitrile elastomers or NBR rubbers. They have excellent oil resistance and are widely used for flexible couplings, hoses, and washing machine parts. Butyl rubbers are copolymers of isobutylene and 1.3% isoprene; they are valuable because of their good resistance to abrasion, low gas permeability, and high dielectric strength. Neoprene (polychloroprene) is particularly useful at elevated temperatures and is used for heavy-duty applications. Ethylene-propylene rubbers (RPDM) with their high resistance to weathering and sunlight are used for automobile parts, hose, electrical insulation, and footwear. Urethane elastomers are called spandex and they consist of urethane blocks and polyether or polyester blocks; the urethane blocks provide strength and heat resistance, the polyester and polyether blocks provide elasticity; they are the most versatile elastomer family because of their hardness, strength, oil resistance, and aging characteristics. They have replaced rubber in elasticized materials. Other uses range from airplane wheels to seat cushions. Other synthetics are highly oil-resistant, but their high cost limits their use. Silicone rubbers are organic derivatives of inorganic polymers, e.g., the polymer of dimethysilanediol. Very stable and flexible over a wide temperature range, they are used in wire and cable insulation.

History

Pre-Columbian peoples of South and Central America used rubber for balls, containers, and shoes and for waterproofing fabrics. Mentioned by Spanish and Portuguese writers in the 16th cent., rubber did not attract the interest of Europeans until reports about it were made (1736–51) to the French Academy of Sciences by Charles de la Condamine and Fran?ois Fresneau. Pioneer research in finding rubber solvents and in waterproofing fabrics was done before 1800, but rubber was used only for elastic bands and erasers, and these were made by cutting up pieces imported from Brazil. Joseph Priestley is credited with the discovery c.1770 of its use as an eraser, thus the name rubber.

The first rubber factory in the world was established near Paris in 1803, the first in England by Thomas Hancock in 1820. Hancock devised the forerunner of the masticator (the rollers through which the rubber is passed to partially break the polymer chains), and in 1835 Edwin Chaffee, an American, patented a mixing mill and a calender (a press for rolling the rubber into sheets).

In 1823, Charles Macintosh found a practical process for waterproofing fabrics, and in 1839 Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanization, which revolutionized the rubber industry. In the latter half of the 19th cent. the demand for rubber insulation by the electrical industry and the invention of the pneumatic tire extended the demand for rubber. In the 19th cent. wild rubber was harvested in South and Central America and in Africa; most of it came from the Par? rubber tree of the Amazon basin.

Despite Brazil's legal restrictions, seeds of the tree were smuggled to England in 1876. The resultant seedlings were sent to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and later to many tropical regions, especially the Malay area and Java and Sumatra, beginning the enormous East Asian rubber industry. Here the plantations were so carefully cultivated and managed that the relative importance of Amazon rubber diminished. American rubber companies, as a step toward diminishing foreign control of the supply, enlarged their plantation holdings in Liberia and in South and Central America.

During World War I, Germany made a synthetic rubber, but it was too expensive for peacetime use. In 1927 a less costly variety was invented, and in 1931 neoprene was made, both in the United States. German scientists developed Buna rubber just prior to World War II. When importation of natural rubber from the East Indies was cut off during World War II, the United States began large-scale manufacture of synthetic rubber, concentrating on Buna S. Today synthetic rubber accounts for about 60% of the world's rubber production.

Bibliography

See P. W. Allen, Natural Rubber and the Synthetics (1972); M. Morton, Rubber Technology (3d ed. 1987).

Columbia Encyclopedia: rubber

Yamaha YAS-82ZS Professional Alto Saxophone Silver

Combines the quick action of the 62 and the warm tone color of the original Custom.

The YAS-82ZS Professional Alto Saxophone features a 2-piece hydro-formed bell. The body, bell, and bow are annealed during production to make this horn more responsive and freer blowing. The new mechanisms on the 82Z allow for faster action and easier repair. Comes with blue steel springs for faster, more sensitive key response and higher resiliency. Eye-catching engraving gives you the look of a custom horn.

Key of Eb. Front F and high F# key, annealed French brass body, French brass neck, 2-piece annealed French brass bell, yellow brass keys, mother-of-pearl key buttons. Silver finish. Includes 4CM mouthpiece, neckstrap, gold-lacquered ligature, gold-lacquered mouthpiece cap, cork grease, and a lightweight case with a shoulder strap.

Yamaha YAS-82ZS Professional Alto Saxophone Silver Specifications:

• Level: Custom Z
• Key: Eb
• Neck: Custom G1
• Neck Material: French Brass
• Body Material: French Brass (annealed)
• Bell: French Brass (annealed); Two-piece
• Key Material: Yellow Brass
• Key Buttons: Mother of pearl
• Tone Holes: Drawn
• Auxiliary Keys: Front F; High F# key
• Mouthpiece: Yamaha 4CM
• Mouthpiece Cap: Yellow brass; Gold lacquer (YAS-82Z/ZB);
• Silver-plated (YAS-82ZS)
• Ligature: Yellow brass; Gold lacquer (YAS-82Z/ZB);
• Silver-plated (YAS-82ZS)
• Spring Type: Blue steel needle
• Pad Type: Waterproof leather and wool felt with plastic tone boosters
• Bell Decoration: Hand engraved
• Thumb Hook: Adjustable plastic
• Pivot Screw: Bullet tip design with head
• Mounting: Ribbed and flanged

Yamaha YAS-82ZS Professional Alto Saxophone Silver Features:

• Bell Material: Yellow Brass
• Body Construction: Full ribs
• Body Finish: Silver plated
• Body Material: Yellow Brass
• High Range: F#
• Key Finish: Silver plated
• Low Range: Bb
• Neck Material: Yellow Brass
• Type: Eb Alto

 

Alto Saxophones

 

Alto Saxophone

LJ Hutchen Eb Alto Saxophone with Case - 2 Year Warranty

Product Features

• Clear lacquer finished body and hard nickel-plated, tarnish resistant keys
• Selmer style, metal thumb rest system for comfortable grip
• Octave key placed in a position to accommodate all hand sizes
• Selmer style, domed metal resonator pads for durable and consistent performance
• ALSO INCLUDES: Mouthpiece assembly kit, reed, neck strap, plush lined hard case, and a 2 Year Warranty

Product Description This LJ Hutchen alto saxophone is significantly different from other brands. This instrument allows young musicians to learn without the frustration that comes with playing a poorly designed product. The materials used throughout the LJ Hutchen saxophone are simply the best that money can buy. Every instrument is double-bench tested and meets the most stringent level of quality before leaving our facility. LJ Hutchen instruments are an outstanding option for student musicians. Pricing and warranty terms are the best value offered in todays instrument market. Because LJ Hutchen instruments are predominantly used by students, we believe that high quality is not only necessary, but is imperative for successful music education. For further information on the LJ Hutchen saxophone, or any other LJ Hutchen instrument, please visit the official LJ Hutchen website.

Suzuki Deluxe AS-SC Alto Saxophone Outfit

Product Features

• Deluxe Eb Alto Saxophone Outfit, Everything Included- Even a 2-Year Warranty!
• Deluxe, Lightweight Aluminum "ROADIE" Style Case With Foam Fittings
• Accessories: 2 Reeds, Ligature And Metal Cap, Cork Grease, Full Length Cleaning Swab, Neck Strap, Polishing Cloth, Care, Maintenance & Assembly
• Left Hand "Stack" Key Mechanism, Right Hand 5TH Finger, Octave And High F# Key Mechanisms
• Top Grade Leather Pads With Metal Resonating Discs, Precision Rod Alignment And Full SIZE Posts For Durability

Product Description Quality and Affordability. Perfect Alto Saxophone for beginning/intermediate students. The Suzuki AS-SC Alto Saxophone features a beautiful rich sound. The ergonomically designed thumb rest, key shape and placement allows for ease of playability. Also, the precision rod alignment and full size posts provide added durability. With the state of the art professional left hand “stack” key mechanism and the right hand fifth finger, octave and high F# key mechanisms, this extraordinary saxophone will provide endless enjoyment. Finally, the superior quality hand finished mouthpiece with 2 reeds, ligature and metal cap rounds out the perfect saxophone with quality and affordability in mind. Suzuki- the leader in music education.

Essential Elements 2000: Eb Alto Saxophone, Bk. 1 (Paperback)

Product Description Now the best-selling band method is even better! Book 1 for absolute beginners includes a CD AND a DVD. Features include: * BOOK: Same great Essential Elements 2000 method! * CD/CD-ROM FEATURES: Play-Along Tracks 1-58 (with a professional player for every instrument) * DVD FEATURES: Startup Video (learn the basics - 15 min.); ALL 185 Play-Along Tracks; More Duets and Trios; Music Listening Library * CD AND DVD EACH FEATURE: SmartMusic Software (practice, record, and e-mail a performance, plus on-screen assessment - includes Ex. 1-99 with special offer to continue); Finale NotePad Software; Tempo Adjustment Software (for Play-Along Tracks).

Alto Saxophone

Travel in Thailand

One of the world's most popular cuisines.  Beautiful beaches and islands.  Friendly, charming people.  Warm weather all year round.  Cheap prices for most things.  Colourful, enchanting temples.  An exotic culture preserved through the ages in a country that has never been colonised.  Where are we talking about?  Thailand, of course!

Located in the heart of Asia, Thailand has been captivating foreign visitors for decades.  Previous visitors return year after year and as the word spreads, first-time visitors come flooding in.  The number of foreign visitors to Thailand continues to increase and year after year, records are broken as international visitors flock to this fascinating country.

Arguably the most exotic destination in South East Asia, Thailand offers travellers and holidaymakers a huge range of vacation possibilities.  It doesn't matter whether you're a budget traveller wanting to explore a foreign land on a tight budget, or a well-heeled traveller who wants to be pampered and experience the very best, Thailand has something for you.

But despite such huge numbers of international tourists, no mean feat given its location such a long way by air from the West, Thailand has not been unduly damaged by the ravages of mass tourism.  It is still quite possible to find a pristine stretch of beautiful white sand beach that you can have all to yourself.  Lazing away the days on a hammock under a palm tree on a mile long beach, without anyone else in sight, swaying in the breeze under a cloudless sky as the waves gently break against the soft white sand....is an experience that can still be had.  Welcome to Thailand!

There is a huge amount of information about travelling and holidaying in Thailand already available - both on the internet and in print.  In my usual, no nonsense, BS free style, I have tried to create a worthwhile.  As always with my online writings about Thailand, I try and get beyond some of the lies, and misconceptions that are out there.

This page should not be seen as any sort of alternative to the excellent Lonely Planet book as I could never hope to compete with that book while running a non-commercial website.  Further, the coverage of a limited number of destinations on this site reflects my experiences in only the places that I have been to and had enough time in to develop a bit of a feel for it.  There are plenty of places that I have never been to that are therefore not covered and other places that I have visited but have not mentioned as I consider that I wasn't there long enough to develop a real feel for the place and therefore cannot offer any wisdom.

While I hope to provide some useful information, if you are planning a holiday to Thailand, you should consider picking up the excellent Lonely Planet Guide To Thailand.  Like all publications, it is not without its faults, but in my opinion it's still  the best guide book for preparing yourself for Thailand.

A lot of other information about travelling in Thailand can also be found in the extensive Working & Living in Bangkok section.  Although that section was originally written as a guide anyone looking at relocating to Bangkok, it also includes much information about food, transport, people, problems and the police that are relevant right throughout the Kingdom.  There is a lot of overlap so it may be worth skimming over too.

This page could largely be separated into two separate sections.  The first part gives general information about travelling in Thailand while the second part goes into detail about some of the places to visit and some of my feelings about them and experiences there.  If you do not want to read through the entire page, select the section that interests you here.

 

thailand travel

 

Thailand Travel

Over the last couple of decades Thailand has become one of the most loved travel destinations in the world. Each year many thousands of people visit Muang Thai (as it is known locally) for a travel experience they do not easily forget. Why though is Thailand such a popular destination? Why do visitors love this country so much? Perhaps the main reason for Thailand's popularity is its diversity - it doesn't matter which aspect of Thailand you consider, you are confronted by extremes wherever you look. Although there's no snow (unless of course you count artificial snow!), Thailand has many types of landscape on offer. The mountainous regions of the north with its valleys filled with swirling fogs and mists create a stark contrast to the plains of central and northeastern Thailand. Eastern Thailand's plains and hills offer fertile land ripe for jungle and agriculture, and as with southern Thailand, offers some of the most attractive beaches and islands on the planet. Of course, all this nature is set against Thailand's metropolitan areas; Thailand is home to some major cities, Bangkok, the country's capital, certainly the largest and the most formidable.

Culturally, Thailand is equally diverse as its geography. Unlike other countries in the region, Thailand has never been colonized and its history and culture have remained intact to develop a natural course. A predominantly Buddhist country, Thailand is a place of ritual and practice that are unfamiliar to most visitors and enhance the country's exotic appeal. Influences throughout the country (Chinese influence in the north; Islamic influence in the south, etc.) add further to the intrigue Thailand generates. Many parts of country are home to hill tribes and traditional peoples whose traditional ways of life remain untouched and present a fascinating insight into the development of this country.

Of course, Thailand's nightlife is legendary and a major attraction for visitors. The risqu? nightlife (go-go bars, etc.) on offer about the country has its place, but doesn't constitute even a fraction of what's on offer. Cabaret Shows and entertainment areas abound, even in the country's less touristy areas. Of course, Thailand's restaurants and bars help complete an irresistible package with some of the best cuisine and entertainment available.

Another reason for Thailand's popularity as a travel destination is likely its accessibility. Although steeped in tradition, history and culture, Thailand's infrastructure is one of the most modern in the region. Transport, banking, and telecommunications are all world class and help make even Thailand's remotest of regions convenient and easy places to visit. This accessibility helps Thailand draw a very diverse group of visitors to Thailand - budget travelers, business people, people taking training courses… they are all here in their masses!

By far one of the key reasons Thailand is such an attraction to visitors is the Thai people themselves. Thai people are blessed with a character and temperament that are often the exact opposite of those found in the 'west'. You see little in the way of confrontation between people here; the famous Thai smile replaces the temper and aggression that might be shown elsewhere. Despite the furry of modern life, Thais remain placid and calm amongst the turmoil creating a tranquility many visitors find infectious and an important part of their Thailand experience.

Thailand Travel

Tricks to teach your kitten

So you think that you can't train your kitten, huh? Perhaps you've heard somewhere that cats can't be taught tricks because of their independent nature, or maybe you've just never heard of anyone teaching cats to do tricks. Well, most cats can learn various tricks, though a debate sometimes rages as to whether the owners are training the cats, or the cats are training the owners.

As with any animal, it's best to start training cats when they're still kittens; they're more likely to pick up on the training if it occurs before they've grown set in their ways. Below are a few simple tricks that you can attempt to teach your kitten. Be warned, however, that some cats don't take to training well, and it may take considerably longer to teach a cat things that a dog might learn in an afternoon.

Name: Teach your cat to recognize its name by calling out the name at feeding time and whenever you give it a treat. Try to choose a name that's different from anyone in the household to help prevent confusion. In time, the cat will come to you (or at least show interest) whenever it hears the name.

Leash/Collar: Much like a dog, a cat can be trained to use a collar and leash. Put the collar on it for increasingly longer periods, gradually letting it get used to the idea of wearing the collar. Once it's used to the collar, begin the same treatment with the leash, letting the cat get used to the limitations of the leash. You'll soon be able to take the cat out for a walk on the leash (likely to the amusement and amazement of your neighbors).

Sit: Give the "Sit" command at feeding time, moving the cat's food dish over its head. This will often cause the cat to sit down while watching the dish in anticipation of the food (you can also do this with a cat treat.) If the cat doesn't sit, press gently on its rump to push it into the sitting position. In time, the cat will associate the command with eating, and will sit down as it's become used to doing.

Come: Give the "Come" command while offering a treat or favorite toy. When the cat comes to receive the treat, pet it and give the treat. The cat will learn to associate the command with the treat, and will come when you call.

Fetch: A slightly more difficult trick, this plays off of the inclination that most cats have toward chasing objects. Give the command of "Fetch" and throw a ball or toy; the cat will likely chase after it. Once the cat has caught whatever you have thrown, "exchange" item for a treat. Once the cat has gotten used to this exchange, stay a bit farther away from the cat and offer the treat; if the cat drops the item, offer it the item, and then exchange the item for the treat. Eventually, the cat will figure out how the exchange works and that it has to bring you the item to get the treat.

Of course, you'll have to continue to treat the cats for performing any of these tricks periodically. Otherwise, they'll realize that there's no benefit and simply refuse to perform. Should you see a lack of progress, don't get frustrated; cats can be hard to train. Just stick with it.

 

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